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About Modern History Spectrum PDF Book
| Book Name | Modern History Spectrum PDF |
| No. of Pages | 950 |
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| Language | English |
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Modern History Spectrum Book Detailed Contents
Contents
UNIT 1
SOURCES AND APPROACHES 1
Chapter 1
Sources for the History of Modern India 1
Archival Materials 2
Central Government Archives 2
Archives of the State Governments 3
Archives of Three Presidencies 4
Archives of Other European Powers 4
Judicial Records 5
Published Archives 5
Private Archives 6
Foreign Repositories 6
Biographies, Memoirs and Travel Accounts 7
Newspapers and Journals 8
Oral Evidence 9
Creative Literature 10
Painting 10
Summary 12
Chapter 2
Major Approaches to the History of Modern India 13
Colonial Approach/ Historiography 14
Nationalist Historiography/ Approach 14
Marxist Historiography/ Approach 15
Subaltern Approach/ Historiography 16
Communalist Approach 17
Cambridge School 18
Liberal and Neo-Liberal Interpretations 18
(vi)
Contents
Feminist Historiography 18
Summary 19
UNIT 2
ADVENT OF EUROPEANS AND 21
CONSOLIDATION OF BRITISH
POWER IN INDIA
Chapter 3
Advent of the Europeans in India 21
The Portuguese in India 22
The Quest for and Discovery of a 22
Sea Route to India
From Trading to Ruling 23
Portuguese State 28
Portuguese Lose Favour with the Mughals 30
Decline of the Portuguese 32
Significance of the Portuguese 34
The Dutch 35
Dutch Settlements 35
Anglo-Dutch Rivalry 36
Decline of the Dutch in India 36
The English 37
Charter of Queen Elizabeth I 37
Progress of the English Company 38
The French 42
Foundation of French Centres in India 42
The Anglo-French Struggle for Supremacy: the 44
Carnatic Wars
Causes for the English Success and the 51
French Failure
The Danes 53
Why the English Succeeded against 53
Other European Powers
Structure and Nature of the Trading Companies 53
Naval Superiority 54
Industrial Revolution 54
Military Skill and Discipline 54
Stable Government 54
Lesser Zeal for Religion 55
Use of Debt Market 55
Summary 55
Boxes
Portuguese Rise and Fall 33
Formative Years of the East India Company 41
Rise and Fall of Dupleix in India 47
About the Goods in Trade Initially 52
Chapter 4
India on the Eve of British Conquest 59
Challenges before the Mughals 59
External Challenges 59
Weak Rulers after Aurangzeb—An 62
Internal Challenge
Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire 64
Shifting Allegiance of Zamindars 65
Jagirdari Crisis 65
Rise of Regional Aspirations 68
Economic and Administrative Problems 69
Rise of Regional States 70
Survey of Regional Kingdoms 70
Nature and Limitations of Regional States 73
Socio-Economic Conditions 74
Agriculture 74
Trade and Industry 74
Status of Education 76
Societal Set-up 77
Developments in Art, Architecture 78
and Culture
Summary 80
Boxes
Why Many Empire-shaking Battles at Panipat? 61
Causes of the Mughals’ Downfall in a Nutshell 68
Chapter 5
Expansion and Consolidation of British 82
Power in India
The British Imperial History 82
Was the British Conquest 82
Accidental or Intentional?
When did the British Period Begin in India? 84
Causes of British Success in India 85
Superior Arms, Military, and Strategy 85
(vii)
Contents
Better Military Discipline and Regular Salary 85
Civil Discipline and Fair Selection System 86
Brilliant Leadership and Support of 86
Second-Line Leaders
Strong Financial Backup 86
Nationalist Pride 87
British Conquest of Bengal 87
Bengal on the Eve of British Conquest 87
Alivardi Khan and the English 88
Challenges Before Siraj-ud-Daulah 88
The Battle of Plassey 89
Mir Kasim and the Treaty of 1760 90
The Battle of Buxar 91
The Treaty of Allahabad 93
Dual Government in Bengal (1765–72) 94
Mysore’s Resistance to the Company 95
The Wodeyar / Mysore Dynasty 95
Rise of Haidar Ali 95
First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69) 96
Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–84) 97
Third Anglo-Mysore War 98
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War 99
Mysore After Tipu 101
Anglo-Maratha Struggle for Supremacy 102
Rise of the Marathas 102
Entry of the English into Maratha Politics 102
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82) 103
Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05) 105
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–19) 107
Why the Marathas Lost 108
Conquest of Sindh 110
Rise of Talpuras Amirs 110
Gradual Ascendancy over Sindh 110
Criticisms of the Conquest of Sindh 114
Conquest of Punjab 114
Consolidation of Punjab under the Sikhs 114
Ranjit Singh and the English 116
Punjab After Ranjit Singh 117
First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46) 117
Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49) 119
Significance of the Anglo-Sikh Wars 120
Extension of British Paramountcy 120
(viii)
Contents
(ix)
Contents
Through Administrative Policy
The Policy of Ring-Fence 120
Subsidiary Alliance 121
Doctrine of Lapse 124
Relations of British India with 126
Neighbouring Countries
Anglo-Bhutanese Relations 126
Anglo-Nepalese Relations 127
Anglo-Burmese Relations 127
Anglo-Tibetan Relations 129
Anglo-Afghan Relations 130
John Lawrence and the Policy of 131
Masterly Inactivity
Lytton and the Policy of Proud Reserve 132
British India and the North-West Frontier 133
Summary 134
Boxes
Robert Clive 93
Estimate of Tipu Sultan 100
Annexation of Awadh 125
UNIT 3
RISING RESENTMENT AGAINST 137
COMPANY RULE
Chapter 6
People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857 137
People’s Resistance: Meaning 138
Genesis of People’s Resistance 138
Causative Factors for People’s Uprisings 139
Civil Uprisings 139
Major Causes of Civil Uprisings 139
General Characteristics of Civil Uprisings 140
Important Civil Uprisings 140
Peasant Movements with Religious Overtones 153
Tribal Revolts 155
Different Causes for Mainland and 155
North-Eastern Tribal Revolts
Characteristics of Tribal Revolts 156
Important Tribal Movements 157
of the Mainland
Tribal Movements of the North-East 167
Sepoy Mutinies 169
Causes 169
Important Mutinies 170
Weaknesses of People’s Uprisings 170
Summary 171
Boxes
Some Tribal Movements after 1857 162
Tribal Movements: Period, Region, Causes at a Glance 166
North-East Frontier Tribal Movements: Year, 168
Region, Major Causes
Chapter 7
The Revolt of 1857 174
Simmering Discontent 174
The 1857 Revolt: the Major Causes 175
Economic Causes 175
Political Causes 176
Administrative Causes 177
Socio-Religious Causes 177
Influence of Outside Events 177
Discontent Among Sepoys 177
Beginning and Spread of the Revolt 178
The Spark 178
Starts at Meerut 179
Choice of Bahadur Shah as Symbolic Head 179
Civilians Join 180
Storm Centres and Leaders of the Revolt 181
Suppression of the Revolt 183
Why the Revolt Failed 184
All-India participation was absent 184
All classes did not join 184
Poor Arms and Equipment 185
Uncoordinated and Poorly Organised 185
No Unified Ideology 185
Hindu-Muslim Unity Factor 186
Nature of the Revolt 186
Consequences 189
Significance of the Revolt 192
(x)
Contents
(xi)
Contents
Summary 193
Box
White Mutiny 188
UNIT 4
REFORM MOVEMENTS 195
Chapter 8
Socio-Religious Reform Movements: 195
General Features
Factors Giving Rise to Desire for Reform 195
Impact of British Rule 196
Social Conditions Ripe for Reform 196
Opposition to Western Culture 197
New Awareness among Enlightened Indians 197
Social and Ideological Bases of Reform 198
Middle Class Base 198
The Intellectual Criteria 199
Two Streams 200
Direction of Social Reform 201
Fight for Betterment of Position of Women 202
Struggle Against Caste-Based Exploitation 209
Summary 215
Chapter 9
A General Survey of Socio–Cultural 217
Reform Movements and their Leaders
Socio-Cultural Reform Movements and their Leaders 217
Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj 217
Prarthana Samaj 222
Young Bengal Movement and 223
Henry Vivian Derozio
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar 224
Balshastri Jambhekar 225
Paramahansa Mandali 225
Jyotirao Phule and Savitribai Phule 226
Gopal Baba Walangkar 228
Kisan Faguji Bansod 229
Vitthal Ramji Shinde 229
Gopalhari Deshmukh ‘Lokahitawadi’ 230
Gopal Ganesh Agarkar 230
(xii)
Contents
The Servants of India Society 231
Social Service League 231
The Ramakrishna Movement and 231
Swami Vivekananda
Dayananda Saraswati and Arya Samaj 235
Seva Sadan 238
Dev Samaj 239
Dharma Sabha 239
Bharat Dharma Mahamandala 239
Radhaswami Movement 239
Sree Narayana Guru Dharma 240
Paripalana (SNDP) Movement
Vokkaliga Sangha 241
Justice Movement 241
Self-Respect Movement 241
Temple Entry Movement 241
Indian Social Conference 242
Wahabi/Walliullah Movement 242
Titu Mir’s Movement 243
Faraizi Movement 243
Ahmadiyya Movement 244
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the 244
Aligarh Movement
The Deoband School (Darul Uloom) 246
Parsi Reform Movements 247
Sikh Reform Movements 247
The Theosophical Movement 248
Significance of Reform Movements 249
Positive Aspects 249
Negative Aspects 251
Summary 252
UNIT 5
THE STRUGGLE BEGINS 254
Chapter 10
Beginning of Modern Nationalism in India 254
Factors in the Growth of Modern Nationalism 254
Understanding of Contradictions in 255
Indian and Colonial Interests
Political, Administrative, and Economic 255
Unification of the Country
Western Thought and Education 256
Role of Press and Literature 256
Rediscovery of India’s Past 257
Progressive Character of Socio-religious 257
Reform Movements
Rise of Middle-Class Intelligentsia 257
Impact of Contemporary Movements 257
in the World
Reactionary Policies and Racial 258
Arrogance of Rulers
Political Associations Before the 258
Indian National Congress
Political Associations in Bengal 259
Political Associations in Bombay 260
Political Associations in Madras 260
Pre-Congress Campaigns 261
Summary 261
Chapter 11
Indian National Congress: Foundation and the 262
Moderate Phase
Foundation of the Indian National Congress 262
Was It a Safety Valve? 263
Aims and Objectives of the Congress 264
Era of Moderates (1885–1905) 264
Important Leaders 264
Moderate Approach 264
Contributions of Moderate Nationalists 265
Economic Critique of British Imperialism 265
Constitutional Reforms and Propaganda 266
in Legislature
Campaign for General Administrative 268
Reforms
Protection of Civil Rights 268
An Evaluation of the Early Nationalists 269
Role of Masses 270
Attitude of the Government 270
Summary 271
(xiii)
Contents
(xiv)
Contents
UNIT 6
NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1905–1918) 272
Chapter 12
Era of Militant Nationalism (1905–1909) 272
Growth of Militant Nationalism 272
Why Militant Nationalism Grew 272
The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement 276
Partition of Bengal to Divide People 276
Anti-Partition Campaign Under 277
Moderates (1903–05)
The Congress Position 278
The Movement under Extremist Leadership 279
The Extremist Programme 279
New Forms of Struggle and Impact 280
Extent of Mass Participation 283
All India Aspect 285
Annulment of Partition 285
Evaluation of the Swadeshi Movement 285
The Movement Fizzles Out 285
Movement a Turning Point 286
The Surat Split 289
Run-up to Surat 289
Split Takes Place 290
Government Repression 291
The Government Strategy 292
Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 293
The Reforms 293
Evaluation 295
Summary 296
Box
Differences between Moderates and Extremists 287
Chapter 13
First Phase of Revolutionary Activities 299
(1907–1917)
Why the Surge of Revolutionary Activities 299
The Revolutionary Programme 300
A Survey of Revolutionary Activities 300
Bengal 300
Maharashtra 303
Punjab 304
(xv)
Contents
Revolutionary Activities Abroad 304
Decline 308
Summary 308
Chapter 14
First World War and Nationalist Response 311
Home Rule League Movement 312
Factors Leading to the Movement 312
The Leagues 313
The Home Rule League Programme 314
Government Attitude 315
Why the Agitation Faded Out by 1919 315
Positive Gains 316
Lucknow Session of the Indian 317
National Congress (1916)
Readmission of Extremists to Congress 317
Lucknow Pact between Congress and 317
Muslim League
Montagu’s Statement of August 1917 320
Indian Objections 320
Summary 321
UNIT 7
ERA OF MASS NATIONALISM BEGINS 322
(1919–1939)
Chapter 15
Emergence of Gandhi 322
Why Nationalist Resurgence Now 323
Post-War Economic Hardships 323
Expectations of Political Gains 323
for Cooperation in the War
Nationalist Disillusionment with 324
Imperialism Worldwide
Impact of Russian Revolution 324
(November 7, 1917)
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and 325
Government of India Act, 1919
Main Features 325
Drawbacks 327
Congress Reaction 328
Making of Gandhi 329
Early Career and Experiments with 329
Truth in South Africa
Gandhi’s Experience in South Africa 332
Gandhi’s Technique of Satyagraha 332
Gandhi in India 333
Champaran Satyagraha (1917)—First Civil 333
Disobedience
Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)— 334
First Hunger Strike
Kheda Satyagraha (1918)—First 335
Non-Cooperation
Gains from Champaran, Ahmedabad, 336
and Kheda
Rowlatt Act, Satyagraha, and 337
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
The Rowlatt Act 337
Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act— 338
First Mass Strike
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919) 339
The Hunter Committee of Inquiry 341
Congress View 343
Summary 344
Box
Tolstoy Farm 331
Chapter 16
Non-Cooperation Movement and 345
Khilafat Aandolan
Background 345
The Khilafat Issue 346
Development of the Khalifat-Non-Cooperation 347
Programme
Congress Stand on Khilafat Question 347
Muslim League Support to Congress 348
The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement 348
Spread of the Movement 350
People’s Response 351
Government Response 353
The Last Phase of the Movement 353
Why Gandhi Withdrew the Movement 354
Evaluation of Khilafat Non-Cooperation Movement 355
Summary 356
(xvi)
Contents
Chapter 17
Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas, 357
Revolutionary Activities and Other New Forces
Swarajists and No-Changers 357
Genesis of Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party 357
Swarajists’ Arguments 358
No-Changers’ Arguments 358
Agree to Disagree 358
The Swarajist Manifesto for Elections 359
Gandhi’s Attitude 359
Swarajist Activity in Councils 360
Constructive Work by No-Changers 362
Emergence of New Forces: Socialistic Ideas, 362
Youth Power, Trade Unionism
Spread of Marxist and Socialist Ideas 363
Activism of Indian Youth 364
Peasants’ Agitations 364
Growth of Trade Unionism 364
Caste Movements 364
Revolutionary Activity with a Turn 365
towards Socialism
Revolutionary Activity During the 1920s 365
Why Attraction for Revolutionary Activity 365
after Non-Cooperation Movement
Major Influences 366
In Punjab-United Provinces-Bihar 366
In Bengal 369
Official Reaction 371
Ideological Rethinking 371
Summary 373
Chapter 18
Simon Commission and the Nehru Report 375
Appointment of the Indian Statutory Commission 375
Indian Response 376
Police Repression 378
Impact of Appointment of Simon Commission 379
on the National Movement
The Simon Commission Recommendations 379
Nehru Report 380
(xvii)
Contents
Main Recommendations 381
The Muslim and Hindu Communal Responses 381
Amendments Proposed by Jinnah 383
Nehru Report Found Unsatisfactory 384
Summary 384
Box
Dr Ambedkar and the Simon Commission 378
Chapter 19
Civil Disobedience Movement and Round 385
Table Conferences
The Run-up to Civil Disobedience Movement 385
Calcutta Session of Congress 385
Political Activity during 1929 386
Irwin’s Declaration (October 31, 1929) 386
Delhi Manifesto 387
Lahore Congress and Purna Swaraj 387
January 26, 1930: the Independence Pledge 388
Civil Disobedience Movement—the Salt 389
Satyagraha and Other Upsurges
Gandhi’s Eleven Demands 389
Why Salt was Chosen as the Important Theme 390
Dandi March (March 12–April 6, 1930) 390
Spread of Salt Law Disobedience 391
Impact of Agitation 396
Extent of Mass Participation 396
Government Response—Efforts for Truce 397
Gandhi-Irwin Pact 398
Evaluation of Civil Disobedience Movement 399
Karachi Congress Session—1931 400
Congress Resolutions at Karachi 400
The Round Table Conferences 401
First Round Table Conference 401
Second Round Table Conference 403
Third Round Table Conference 406
Civil Disobedience Resumed 407
During Truce Period (March–December 1931) 407
Changed Government Attitude After Second RTC 407
Government Action 408
Popular Response 408
(xviii)
Contents
Communal Award and Poona Pact 408
Main Provisions of the Communal Award 409
Congress Stand 410
Gandhi’s Response 410
Poona Pact 411
Impact of Poona Pact on Dalits 411
Gandhi’s Harijan Campaign and thoughts on Caste 412
Ideological Differences and Similarities 414
between Gandhi and Ambedkar
Summary 418
Chapter 20
Debates on the Future Strategy after Civil 420
Disobedience Movement
The First Stage Debate 420
Nehru’s Vision 421
Nehru’s Opposition to Struggle- 421
Truce-Struggle Strategy
Finally, Yes to Council Entry 422
Government of India Act, 1935 423
Main Features 423
Evaluation of the Act 425
Nationalists’ Response 426
The Second Stage Debate 427
Divided Opinion 427
Gandhi’s Position 428
Congress Manifesto for Elections 428
Congress’ Performance 429
Summary 429
Chapter 21
Congress Rule in Provinces 430
Gandhi’s Advice 430
Work under Congress Ministries 430
Civil Liberties 430
Agrarian Reforms 430
Attitude Towards Labour 432
Social Welfare Reforms 433
Evaluation 433
Summary 434
(xix)
Contents
(xx)
Contents
UNIT 8
TOWARDS FREEDOM AND 435
PARTITION (1939–1947)
Chapter 22
Nationalist Response in the Wake of 435
World War II
Congress Crisis on Method of Struggle 435
Haripura and Tripuri Sessions: Subhash 436
Bose’s Views
Gandhi and Bose: Ideological Differences 440
Non-Violence versus Militant Approach 440
Means and Ends 441
Form of Government 442
Militarism 445
Ideas on Economy 445
Religion 447
Caste and Untouchability 449
Women 449
Education 452
Second World War and Nationalistic Response 453
Congress Offer to Viceroy 453
CWC Meeting at Wardha 453
Government Attitude and Congress Ministries’ 455
Resignation
Government’s Hidden Agenda 455
August Offer 458
Responses 458
Evaluation 459
Individual Satyagraha 459
Gandhi Designates Nehru as his Successor 460
Cripps Mission 461
Why Cripps Mission Was Sent 461
Main Proposals 461
Departures from the Past and Implications 462
Why Cripps Mission Failed 462
Summary 464
Chapter 23
Quit India Movement, Demand for Pakistan, 466
and the INA
Quit India Movement 466
Why Start a Struggle Now 466
The ‘Quit India’ Resolution 467
Gandhi’s General Instructions to 467
Different Sections
Spread of the Movement 468
Extent of Mass Participation 470
Government Repression 470
Estimate 471
Gandhi Fasts 471
Famine of 1943 472
Rajagopalachari Formula 472
The Formula 472
Objections 473
Desai-Liaqat Pact 473
Wavell Plan 473
Why the Government was Keen on 474
a Solution Now
The Plan 474
Muslim League’s Stand 474
Congress Stand 475
Wavell’s Mistake 475
The Indian National Army and Subhas Bose 475
Origin and First Phase of the Indian 476
National Army
Summary 479
Chapter 24
Post-War National Scenario 481
Two Strands of National Upsurge 481
Change in Government’s Attitude 481
Congress Election Campaign and INA Trials 483
Election Campaign for Nationalistic Aims 483
Congress Support for INA Prisoners 484
The INA Agitation—A Landmark on 484
Many Counts
Three Upsurges—Winter of 1945–46 485
Three-Stage Pattern 485
Evaluation of Potential and Impact of the 487
Three Upsurges
Congress Strategy 488
Election Results 488
Performance of the Congress 488
(xxi)
Contents
Muslim League’s Performance 489
Significant Features of Elections 489
The Cabinet Mission 489
Why British Withdrawal Seemed Imminent Now 489
On the Eve of Cabinet Mission Plan 491
Cabinet Mission Arrives 491
Cabinet Mission Plan—Main Points 491
Different Interpretations of the Grouping Clause 493
Main Objections 493
Acceptance and Rejection 494
Communal Holocaust and the Interim Government 495
Changed Government Priorities 495
Interim Government 495
Obstructionist Approach and Ulterior 496
Motives of the League
Birth and Spread of Communalism in India 497
Characteristic Features of Indian Communalism 497
Reasons for Growth of Communalism 498
Evolution of the Two-Nation Theory 504
Summary 508
Box
Wavell’s ‘Breakdown Plan’ 494
Chapter 25
Independence with Partition 510
Attlee’s Statement of February 20, 1947 510
main points of Attlee’s Statement 510
Why a Date Fixed by Government for Withdrawal511
Congress Stand 511
Independence and Partition 511
Mountbatten as the Viceroy 512
Mountbatten Plan, June 3, 1947 512
Indian Independence Act 514
Problems of Early withdrawal 515
Integration of States 515
Inevitability of Partition 516
Why Congress Accepted Partition 516
Gandhi’s Helplessness 519
Summary 519
Box
Plan Balkan 515
(xxii)
Contents
(xxiii)
Contents
UNIT 9
INDIA UNDER BRITISH RULE: 520
GOVERNANCE AND OTHER ASPECTS
Chapter 26
Constitutional, Administrative, and Judicial 520
Developments
Contents
Constitutional Development between 1773 521
and 1858
The Regulating Act of 1773 521
Pitt’s India Act of 1784 522
The Act of 1786 523
The Charter Act of 1793 523
The Charter Act of 1813 523
The Charter Act of 1833 524
The Charter Act of 1853 525
The Act for Better Government of India 1858 526
Developments after 1858 till Independence 526
Indian Councils Act 1861 526
Indian Councils Act 1892 527
Indian Councils Act 1909 527
Government of India Act 1919 528
Simon Commission 530
Government of India Act 1935 530
Evolution of Civil Services in India 532
Cornwallis’ Role 532
Wellesley’s Role 533
Charter Act of 1853 533
Indian Civil Service Act of 1861 533
Statutory Civil Service 534
Congress Demand and Aitchison Committee 534
Montford Reforms 1919 534
Lee Commission (1924) 535
Evaluation of Civil Services under British Rule 535
Evolution of Police System in Modern India 536
Military Under the British 538
Development of Judiciary in British India 540
Reforms under Warren Hastings (1772–85) 541
Reforms under Cornwallis (1786–93)— 541
Separation of Powers
Reforms under William Bentinck (1828–33) 542
Later Developments 542
Evaluation 543
Positive Aspects of Judiciary under the British 543
The Negative Aspects 543
Major Changes in Administrative 543
Structure after 1857
Genesis of Administrative Changes: 543
New Stage of Colonialism
Administration: Central, Provincial, Local 544
Central Government 544
Provincial Government 546
Local Bodies 547
Summary 551
Chapter 27
Survey of British Policies in India 553
Administrative Policies 553
Divide and Rule 553
Hostility Towards Educated Indians 553
Attitude Towards the Zamindars 554
Attitude Towards Social Reforms 554
Underdeveloped Social Services 554
Labour Legislations 555
Restrictions on Freedom of the Press 556
White Racism 556
Revenue Policies 557
Hastings’ System 557
Permanent Settlement 558
Ryotwari System 559
Mahalwari System 562
Overall Impact of the British Land 564
revenue Systems
British Social and Cultural Policy in India 565
Characteristics of New Thought 566
Schools of Thought 566
Indian Renaissance 567
Dilemma Before the Government 567
Role of Christian Missionaries 567
British Retreat 568
British Policy Towards Princely States 568
(xxiv)
Contents
British Foreign Policy in India 569
Summary 570
Chapter 28
Economic Impact of British Rule in India 571
Deindustrialisation—Ruin of 571
Artisans and Handicraftsmen
One-Way Free Trade 571
No Steps towards Modern Industrialisation 572
Ruralisation 572
Impoverishment of Peasantry 572
Emergence of Intermediaries, Absentee 573
Landlordism, Ruin of Old Zamindars
Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture 574
Famine and Poverty 574
Commercialisation of Indian Agriculture 574
Destruction of Industry and Late 575
Development of Modern Industry
Nationalist Critique of Colonial Economy 578
British Policies Making India Poor 579
Growth of Trade and Railways to 579
Help Britain
One-Way Free Trade and Tariff Policy 581
Effect of Economic Drain 581
Economic Issue a Stimulant to National Unrest 582
Stages of Colonialism in India 582
First Stage 583
Second Stage 584
Third Stage 585
Summary 586
Box
Economic Drain 578
Chapter 29
Development of Indian Press 587
Early Regulations 587
Struggle by Early Nationalists to 588
Secure Press Freedom
Vernacular Press Act, 1878 589
Repression against Nationalist 590
Journalists Continues
During and After the First World War 592
(xxv)
Contents
During the Second World War 593
Summary 593
Chapter 30
Development of Education 594
Under Company Rule 594
A Humble beginning by Charter Act of 1813 595
Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy 595
Lord Macaulay’s Minute (1835) 595
Efforts of Thomson 596
Wood’s Despatch (1854) 596
After the Crown Takeover 597
Hunter Education Commission (1882–83) 597
Indian Universities Act, 1904 598
Government Resolution on 599
Education Policy—1913
Sadler University Commission (1917–19) 600
Education Under Dyarchy 602
Hartog Committee (1929) 602
Sargent Plan of Education 604
Development of Vernacular Education 607
Development of Technical Education 608
Evaluation of British Policy on Education 608
Summary 609
Box
Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937) 606
Chapter 31
Peasant Movements 1857–1947 610
Peasantry Under Colonialism 610
A Survey of Early Peasant Movements 611
Indigo Revolt (1859–60) 611
Pabna Agrarian Leagues 611
Deccan Riots 612
Changed Nature of Peasant Movements after 1857 613
Weaknesses 613
Later Movements 614
The Kisan Sabha Movement 614
Eka Movement 615
Mappila Revolt 615
Bardoli Satyagraha 616
(xxvi)
Contents
(xxvii)
Contents
The All India Kisan Congress/Sabha 617
Under Congress Ministries 617
Peasant Activity in Provinces 617
During the War 618
Post-War Phase 619
Balance-Sheet of Peasant Movements 620
Summary 521
Chapter 32
The Movement of the Working Class 622
Early Efforts 622
During Swadeshi Upsurge 623
During the First World War and After 624
The AITUC 624
The Trade Union Act, 1926 625
Late 1920s 625
Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929) 625
Under Congress Ministries 626
During and After the Second World War 626
After Independence 626
Summary 626
UNIT 10
INDEPENDENCE AND AFTER 627
Chapter 33
Challenges before the Newborn Nation 627
First Day of Independent India 627
First Government after Independence 628
Challenges 629
Radcliffe’s Boundary Award and the 629
Communal Riots
Challenges before the Boundary Commission 630
Regions Most Affected by Riots 631
Challenges Associated with Division of Resources 632
Division of Civil Government 633
Division of Finances 633
Division of Defence Personnel and Equipment 634
Assassination of Gandhi 634
Rehabilitation and Resettlement of Refugees 635
East Punjab 635
Bengal 636
Delhi Pact on Minorities 636
Centres of Refugee Settlements in India 637
Communists and Independence 637
Why Communists were Sceptical 638
about Independence
Shift from Antagonistic Strategy to 639
Constitutional Democracy
Chapter 34
The Indian States 640
I. The Company’s Struggle for Equality from 640
a Position of Subordination (1740–1765)
II. Policy of Ring Fence (1765–1813) 641
III. Policy of Subordinate Isolation (1813–1857) 641
IV. Policy of Subordinate Union (1857–1935) 642
Curzon’s Approach 642
Post-1905 643
V. Policy of Equal Federation (1935–1947): 644
A Non-Starter
VI. Integration and Merger 644
Plebiscite and Army Action 645
Gradual Integration 645
Chapter 35
Making of the Constitution for India 647
Background 647
Constituent Assembly 650
Formation 650
Two Constituent Assemblies: India and Pakistan 651
Evaluation of the Assembly for India 652
After Independence 653
Work : Committees and Consensus 653
Box
Drafting Committee 653
Chapter 36
The Evolution of Nationalist Foreign Policy 656
From 1880 to First World War: Anti-imperialism 657
and Pan-Asian Feeling
World War I 658
(xxviii)
Contents
1920s and 1930s—Identifying with Socialists 658
After 1936—Anti-Fascism 659
After Independence 659
Panchsheel and Non-Alignment 660
Boxes
Historical Perspective on Panchsheel 661
Five Criteria of Non-alignment 663
Chapter 37
First General Elections 665
Groundwork for the Elections 665
The Election Commission 665
Legislation for Polls 666
Independent India Goes to the Polls for 666
the First Time
Challenges 667
Parties in the Fray for the Lok Sabha 668
Conduct of Elections 669
Results 670
Box
First General Elections: Winners 671
Chapter 38
Developments under Nehru’s Leadership (1947–64) 672
Political Developments 673
Debate over National Language 673
Linguistic Reorganisation of the States 674
Growth of Other Political Parties 676
An Undemocratic Deed 681
Concept of Planning for Economic Development 681
Progress of Science and Technology 683
Social Developments 684
Developments in Education 684
Social Change under Nehru 685
Foreign Policy 685
Relations with Neighbours 686
India and Pakistan 686
India and China 687
India and Nepal 689
India and Bhutan 689
India and Sri Lanka 689
(xxix)
Contents
Chapter 39
After Nehru. . . 690
The Lal Bahadur Shastri Years 690
(June 1964 – January 1966)
Early Life 691
Political Journey after Independence 691
Economic Ideas 693
Foreign Relations 697
The Indo-Pak War 698
Shastri’s Death 701
Indira Gandhi: the First Phase 701
(January 1966 – March 1977)
Early Life 701
Political Journey after Independence 702
Developments in the Political System 714
Socio-Economic Policies 723
Tackling Economic Problems 726
The Indo-Pak War of 1971 and the Birth 729
of Bangladesh
Foreign Policy and Relations with other Countries737
The Smiling Buddha 739
The Janata Party Years 741
(March 1977 – January 1980)
Morarji Desai the First Non-Congress 741
Prime Minister
Fresh State Assembly Elections 741
New President of India 742
Downslide of the Janata and Rise 742
of Congress (I)
Charan Singh the Prime Minister 744
Who Never Faced Parliament
Fresh Lok Sabha Elections and End of 745
Janata Party Rule
Legacy of the Janata Rule 745
Social Changes and Movements 749
Indira Gandhi: the Second Phase 750
(January 1980 – October 1984)
Economy 750
Foreign Relations 751
Unrest in States 753
(xxx)
Contents
Punjab Turmoil and Operation Blue Star 753
Legacy 756
The Rajiv Years (October 1984 – December 1989) 757
Problems at the Very Outset 757
The 1985 General Elections 759
Tackling the Tensions in States 760
Positive Steps taken on the Domestic Front 762
The Negative Side 765
Agrarian Unrest 768
Foreign Relations 769
General Elections of 1989 772
The V.P. Singh Years 773
(December 1989 – November 1990)
Kashmir Situation Worsens 773
Implementation of the Mandal 774
Commission Report
Mandal to Mandir: the Rath Yatra and 776
Fall of the Government
The Chandra Shekhar Government 777
(November 1990 – June 1991)
Troubled Economy 777
Elections of 1991 778
The Narasimha Rao Years (June 1991 – May 1996) 779
Economic Reform 779
Panchayati Raj and Nagarpalika Acts 781
Handling Security Issues and Space Tech 782
Foreign Policy 782
Negative Aspects 783
Kashmir 785
General Elections of 1996 786
Rise of the Dalit Voice 786
Between 1996 and 1999: Three Prime Ministers 787
Vajpayee’s Short-Lived Term as Prime Minister 788
United Front Government: Deve 788
Gowda and I.K. Gujral
General Elections 790
NDA Years (March 1998 – October 1999) 790
Pokhran II: Operation Shakti 791
The Lahore Summit 792
Kargil War 792
NDA: Second Stint (October 1999 – May 2004) 793
Economic and Social Steps 793
(xxxi)
Contents
Terrorist Trouble and Relations with Pakistan 794
Relations with the US 795
Kashmir Elections 795
The Downside 795
Significance of NDA 796
2004 General Election 796
The UPA Years 797
(May 2004 – May 2009; May 2009 – May 2014)
UPA Government: First Term 797
2009 Election and UPA Back in Power 801
The 2014 General Election 812
The NDA Government (May 2014 – May 2019) 814
Digital India: a Step Forward in e-Governance 815
Socio-Economic Policies and 815
Programmes of Importance
Security 825
Foreign Relations 829
Social Situation 832
General Election and Return of the NDA 836
Factors behind the NDA Victory 837
APPENDICES
1. Personalities Associated with Specific Movements 840
Swadeshi Movement 840
Non-cooperation Movement 845
Civil Disobedience Movement 849
Quit India Movement 852
2. Governors-General and Viceroys of India: 855
Significant Events in their Rule
3. Indian National Congress Annual Sessions 864
4. Socio-Religious Reform Movements 869
(late 18th to mid-20th century)
5. Famous Trials of the Nationalist Period 876
6. Caste Movements 878
7. Peasant Movements 880
8. Newspapers and Journals 883
Conclusion
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